^ Endo, Hideki Yamagiwa, Daishiro Hayashi, Yoshihiro Koie, Hiroshi Yamaya, Yoshiki Kimura, Junpei ()."Carpal bone movements in gripping action of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca)".
^ Endo, Hideki Sasaki, Motoki Hayashi, Yoshihiro Koie, Hiroshi Yamaya, Yoshiki Kimura, Junpei (). Annals of Anatomy - Anatomischer Anzeiger. "Radial sesamoid bone as a part of the manipulation system in the lesser panda (Ailurus fulgens)". ^ Endo, Hideki Sasaki, Motoki Kogiku, Hiroyuki Yamamoto, Masako Arishima, Kazuyoshi (2001). "Tracing the origin of the panda's thumb". Hontecillas, Daniel Montoya, Plinio Morales, Jorge (). ^ Abella, Juan Pérez-Ramos, Alejandro Valenciano, Alberto Alba, David M. "Evidence of a false thumb in a fossil carnivore clarifies the evolution of pandas". Antón, Mauricio Peigné, Stéphane Morales, Jorge (2006). "Implications of the functional anatomy of the hand and forearm of Ailurus fulgens (Carnivora, Ailuridae) for the evolution of the 'false-thumb' in pandas". ^ a b c d e Antón, Mauricio Salesa, Manuel J. ^ "bunion, hammer toe, nail fungus, hallux rigidus". "Popliteus muscle sesamoid bone (Cyamella): Appearance on radiographs, CT and MRI". Tahsin Anik, Yonca Akansel, Sertaç (2006). ^ Akansel, Gur Inan, Nagihan Sarisoy, H. "Multipartite hallux sesamoid | Radiology Reference Article | ". ^ a b Reference list for image is located at Commons:Template:Accessory and sesamoid bones of the foot - references. "Prevalence and variation of sesamoid bones in the hand: a multi-center radiographic study". ^ Chen W, Cheng J, Sun R, Zhang Z, Zhu Y, Ipaktchi K, et al. : CS1 maint: uses authors parameter ( link) ^ Erica Chu, Donald Resnick (June 2014). ^ Entry "sesamoid" in Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. The forepaws of moles also possess a prepollex consisting of an enlarged, sickle-shaped sesamoid. Evidence of these "predigits" has also been found in certain fossil proboscideans. The prehallux is further divided into two elements the more proximal of these is fixed, whilst the more distal is mobile. In contrast to other sesamoids in elephants, which ossify at 3-7 years of age, the ossification of the prepollex and prehallux is delayed and is known to not have yet occurred in animals in excess of 20 years of age. These sesamoids function as "sixth toes", helping to distribute the animals' weight. Įlephants have similarly enlarged sesamoid bones in both their forelimbs and hindlimbs, referred to as the prepollex and prehallux, respectively. The reason for this evolutionary change is still unknown however, it may be to assist in grasping small objects and thin branches. 
Their enlarged radial sesamoid bone and that of the giant panda have a similar morphology and size relative to the rest of the hand. Recently, the enlarged radial sesamoid bone of cotton rats has been studied. In these two panda species, DYNC2H1 gene and PCNT gene have been identified as possible causes for the pseudo-thumb development. In the giant panda, the bone allows for a pincer-like motion and is used in grasping the bamboo. The giant panda, however, evolved the enlarged radial sesamoid bone around the same time as it evolved a bamboo diet. When the red panda later evolved to consume a bamboo diet, the enlarged bone underwent exaptation to assist in grasping bamboo. The red panda likely originally evolved the "pseudo-thumb" in order to assist in arboreal locomotion. This evolution has caused the two species to diverge from other carnivores. The patella is also a form of sesamoid bone in the horse.Īlthough many carnivores have radial sesamoid bones, the giant panda and red panda independently evolved to have an enlarged radial sesamoid bone. Strictly these should be termed the proximal sesamoid bones whereas the navicular bone should be referred to as the distal sesamoid bone. In equine anatomy, the term sesamoid bone usually refers to the two sesamoid bones found at the back of the fetlock or metacarpophalangeal and metatarsophalangeal joints in both hindlimbs and forelimbs. In some people, only a single sesamoid is found on the first metatarsal bone. One is found on the lateral side of the first metatarsal while the other is found on the medial side.
In the foot-the first metatarsal bone usually has two sesamoid bones at its connection to the big toe (both within the tendon of flexor hallucis brevis). 
It begins to ossify in children ages 9–12. In the wrist-The pisiform of the wrist is a sesamoid bone (within the tendon of flexor carpi ulnaris).There is also commonly a sesamoid bone in distal portions of the second metacarpal bone. In the hand-two sesamoid bones are commonly found in the distal portions of the first metacarpal bone (within the tendons of adductor pollicis and flexor pollicis brevis).In the knee-the patella (within the quadriceps tendon).Sesamoid bones can be found on joints throughout the body, including:
Prevalence, structure, and locations of sesamoid bones of the hand.
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